A Canterbury Tale of Splitting of Moon: A Reconciliatory View for the Jewish and Christian Rationalists
Content:
- The Pillar
- Scientific Background
- The Canterbury Tale of the Monks
- Miracle of the Prophet
- Causes for the Moon Split
- Proofs from Abrahamic Traditions
- Similarities of Miracle of Prophet Muhammad & Prophet Joshua
- Case of Two Alternatives (among other)
- Arguments v. Counterargument
- Reconciliation through Science
- Conclusion and Future Work
- Appendix
- References
Note: Underlined text in the article contains hyperlink to reference.
The Pillar —
And [remember in Battle of Badr] when He showed them to you, when you met, as few in your eyes, and He made you [appear] as few in their eyes so that Allāh might accomplish a matter already destined. And to Allāh are [all] matters returned. (Quran 8:44)
In the Battle of Badr, the pagans of Mecca were able to see the Muslims in lower number than what the historian reports i.e., around 313, which made them feel confident and self-assured over their strength in numbers to fight head-on with Muslims. Similarly, the Muslims led by Prophet Muhammad (SAW), saw the pagans less than they actually are reported by historian now i.e., around 1000, so that their confidence is boosted making them believe that they have equal match in numbers and can defeat the pagans.
The essay is based on the inductive reasoning and therefore the inference is drawn using the above-mentioned verse. God — being omnipotent — has the power to make certain set of observers see what He wants them to see, even if the actual physical reality is totally different to some other set of observers.
Scientific Background —
The Solar System, with Sun at its centre and planets revolving around it in an elliptical orbit is a relatively calm place to be. We feel quite unbothered by anything suddenly falling from the sky and destroying the humanity and life as we know it. But at a cosmic scale, humans have only recently started to walk the Earth to be able to witness the cosmic events. And its only been few thousand years that we have been able to read and write and record the events to be scribed it in our collective memory. According to a beautiful analogy by Carl Sagan’s Cosmic Calendar [1], if the Big Bang started off in the first second on 1st January, the earliest modern-human only arrived at the scene on 10:30 pm on 31st December i.e., on the last day of that year. As the observable universe is known to be some 15 billion years old, each month represents almost one and a quarter billion year (1.25 billion years). The Sun and Earth age is around 4.5 billion years, which means it can be represented on Cosmic Calendar to form not until mid-September. That means that there must have been stellar cosmic events that happened within our very own backyard of Solar system that we were not able to witness as we were not present yet. For much of the time that the observable universe, humans were absent from the scene. With that perspective, does saying ‘relatively calm place’ is accurate if we haven’t been there to witness it?
Due to the fact that universe is so large and has millions of light years distance between two heavenly objects and has so much empty space, the chances of collisions are few and far between. But as it happens, nothing in life is free from any eventualities and accidents. Due to the presence of asteroids in the space, a collision may happen sometimes, huge rocks and disintegrating pieces broken off from some planet gets pulled in to the closest planet due to its gravitational pull. Similarly the Comets that can crash or cross the orbits of the planets make ‘things falling from the sky’ a reality at a cosmic level. As an example, the Halley’s Comet crosses the Earths orbit every 76 years and is projected to return on 2061 and according to one theory, it will eventually crash onto Moon somewhere far into the future. Many Comets and Asteroids have fallen on Earth and Moon as well as other planets such as Venus, Mars, Jupiter, as can be witnessed by impact craters sites. Tunguska Event is said to have been caused due to a comet falling on Earth in 1908 [2]. Similarly, the impact crater in US Arizona was known to have been formed when a meteorite fell on Earth. Similarly, on Moon it can be seen through a telescope that there have been more than 100,000 impacts crater sites of heavenly bodies (comet or asteroids). That is also why, the Moon is said to have ‘dark spots’ that were formed due to larger celestial objects falling on Moon leaving a mark for observers on the Earth. On the other hand, smaller impacts happen quite often that may or may not leave impact mark to be noticeable by the naked eye. Due to several impacts of comets and asteroids on the Moon over the epochs, it is believed to have several cracks and fissures. As in the case of hammering a decently-sized stone, each blow leaves a fracture but the stone remains intact but it can only take the hammering for so long, eventually it gets cracked into pieces.
The Canterbury Tale of the Monks —
To an observer on Earth, the impact of an asteroid or a comet can create different spectacles. Based on the lunar phase and at what angle the Sun light falls on the impact region, the impact can be observed as: a dust cloud/smoke rising on the Moon surface; or as a bright light suddenly originating from unilluminated side of the Moon; or sometimes as ‘splitting of Moon’ into two pieces [1]. The last one is exactly how it was recorded by five monks in England back in 1178 A.D at a site near Canterbury and was recorded by the chronicler Gervase [3]. This was their testimony:
There was a bright New Moon, and as usual in that phase its horns were tilted
towards the east. Suddenly, the upper horn split in two.. [from] the midpoint of the division… the moon throbbed like a wounded snake..
‘Horns tilted towards east’ means the left most phase in the Figure A.
This testimony is consistent with the finding of astronomers such as Derral Mullholland and Odile Calame as well as Jack Hartung regarding what the impact of heavenly body on the Moon can mean for the observers on Earth. The testimony is also consistent with their experimental results that the Moon seems to be still shaking from the impact that happened on 1178 A.D, with an amplitude of three meters and a period (T) of three years [4]. This measurement was done by striking beams from Earth towards the laser reflectometer placed by the Apollo 11 astronauts when they landed on the surface of Moon in 1969.
Miracle of the Prophet —
Most of the Islamic scholars believe that Quran is the biggest miracle that Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) was given and there is no need for any other physical miracles to justify the authenticity and veracity of his Prophethood. This is the consensus of the Muslims. It is also no less than a miracle that how Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) has influenced the fate of the world in only a short time span of 23 years of Prophethood. But some scholars are also of the view that splitting of Moon is considered to be one of the miracles of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W). We will not go into the question why and how splitting of Moon is considered as a miracle but will take it on its face value and analyse that if its a miracle then how to make sense of the criticism and denial that arises among the Jewish and Christian tradition, when we portray it as one of Prophet Muhammad’s (SAW) miracles.
From our earlier discussion, a question might arises in the minds of the reader about the monks in England: Is this splitting of Moon into two pieces, the phenomenon observed by monks in England in 1178 AD is also what is associated with the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) miracle of splitting of Moon. Or are they two completely different phenomenon? It might be or might not be. We will probably never know for sure what really happened. However, there is an alternative interpretation of the whole incident.
From a prima-facie and an initial look, both events might sound similar but a deeper analysis suggest both are philosophically, linguistically and epistemologically different. One happened on an ordinary day in Canterbury, while the other happened as a response to a challenge from non-believers. Therefore, while the former is considered an unusual cosmic event happened on an ordinary day, the latter is considered as a extraordinary Divine intervention happened on an extraordinary day. Although happening at two different time periods (Prophet’s Miracle happening in 622 A.D and Canterbury event happening in 1178 A.D), but is the phenomenon related in some sense?
The Quran mentions in Surah Qamar (54:1)
ٱقْتَرَبَتِ ٱلسَّاعَةُ وَٱنشَقَّ ٱلْقَمَرُ
The Hour has drawn near and the moon has split (in two)
The word شق according to Arabic lexicon has several meanings; splitting, scarify, shake, crack, fissure, or fracture and its meaning changes according to context. It is interesting to note that the testimony of the Canterbury monks also include the word splitting and shake. And we already have established earlier from Calame, Mullholland and Hartung’s findings that the impacts of comets and asteroids have led to massive cracks and fissures as well as shaking of the Moon. All these words in their research share the resemblance with the meaning of شق . Now the reader might be seeing some connections.
See images of lunar surface for cracks and fissures (Appendix: Exhibit 2).
According to scholars, the above-mentioned ayah has two interpretations:
1) The Moon will split into two when the Hour will approach (i.e., before the Judgement Day)
2) It is referred to the event during Prophet Muhammad’s (S.A.W) time when the Moon was split into two parts.
The first interpretation can also be understood that when the Hour will approach, the Moon will finally split into pieces (remember the analogy of hammering a stone?) and then there will be no margins given to non-believers, to argue over whether and how it happened because the Messengers already came with clear signs and guidance that they [non-believers] openly denied (Surah Ad-Dukhan 44:12–13)
رَّبَّنَا ٱكْشِفْ عَنَّا ٱلْعَذَابَ إِنَّا مُؤْمِنُونَ — أَنَّىٰ لَهُمُ ٱلذِّكْرَىٰ وَقَدْ جَآءَهُمْ رَسُولٌۭ مُّبِينٌۭ
[They will say], “Our Lord, remove from us the torment; indeed, we are believers. [But] How will there be for them a reminder [at that time]? And there had come to them a clear Messenger’’
However, the most widely accepted view is that it is referring to the event during the Prophet Muhammad’s (S.A.W) time when the Moon was split into two and this event is also considered as one of the major signs (among many other reported [5]) and as a harbinger for beginning of the End when both interpretations above, are combined with another hadith for its overarching meaning.
Similarly this event has been recorded in Hadith reported by multiple Companions of the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) [6].
Narrated Ibn ‘Umar: The moon split during the time of the Messenger of Allah(S.A.W), so the Messenger of Allah(S.A.W) said: ‘Bear witness’
Narrated Abdullah bin Masud: During the lifetime of the Prophet (S.A.W) the moon was split into two parts and on that the Prophet (S.A.W) said, “Bear witness (to thus).
Narrated by Anas ibn Malik: That the Meccan people asked Allah’s Messenger (S.A.W) to show them a miracle, and so he showed them the splitting of the moon.
Causes for the Moon Split —
By setting aside the first interpretation (the Moon will split into two when the Last Hour will approach) and taking the splitting of Moon during Prophet’s time interpretation as a given, we can continue with our discussions.
According to scholars such as Dr. Israr Ahmad [7], the splitting of Moon could have happened due to following three causes:
1) The Moon splits by pure chance and Muhammad (S.A.W) pointed towards it for non-believers to witness (so as to convey a message that what the non-believers think is eternal, natural, constant or follows certain patterns, is always at the mercy of Almighty and His Powers — He can do whatever He wants e.g., split and re-join the Moon at His Will)
2) The Moon split because the non-believers wanted to see any sign from Almighty God (under the same context of what is reported by Anas ibn Malik)
3) The Moon split because the non-believers challenged specifically that Prophet split the Moon into two.
The first two, according to Dr. Israr Ahmad, are the most probable causes. Now I believe, in both of these first two cases, two following alternatives can answer the question of how did the Moon split into two.
1) Almighty God split the Moon physically and then re-joined it (at His Command).
2) Almighty God made it look like that the Moon split into two (at His Command). This is based on the first sub-heading of the essay i.e. The Pillar.
The question why the second interpretation is more likelier than the first, is a matter of another discussion. It should be noted that the Almighty God has power to do both (or anything else for that matter); whatever He wills and whenever He wants. As Quran mentions later in the same Surah Qamar 54:50
وَمَآ أَمْرُنَآ إِلَّا وَٰحِدَةٌۭ كَلَمْحٍۭ بِٱلْبَصَرِ
Our command is but a single word, done in the blink of an eye.
Proofs from Abrahamic Traditions —
We already have the examples of supernatural events and stories in Abrahamic traditions (Jewish, Christian and Islamic). For example, based on Jewish traditions (shared by Christian and Muslim) the Red Sea was physically split into two by Almighty God, to make way for Moses and his followers, before the army of Pharaoh was vanquished in the Red Sea.
Some stories from the Christian traditions also points to extraordinary events and miracles that only a select few witnessed, and exactly how God made people see what He wanted them to see. The famous Biblical story of Joshua commanding the sun to stand still during the battle so that he can defeat the armies of five kings who laid the siege on Gibeon (an area in the modern day Palestine), may be a similar optical miracle that only those in that battle saw. As mentioned in Book of Joshua 10:12–14
“Then Joshua spoke to the Lord on the day when the Lord delivered the Amorites before the children of Israel; and he said in the sight of Israel: ‘Sun, stand still upon Gibeon; and you, Moon, in the valley of Ajailon.”
“And the Sun stood still, and the Moon stopped until the nation took vengeance on their enemies, And The sun stopped in the middle of the sky..’’
The common interpretation of the verse mentioned above is that the Sun stood still in the sky so that Joshua took the advantage of a long day to defeat his enemies. But the sun standing still is interpreted by some Christian and Jewish scientists as the the sun not functioning as it normally does i.e., Sun stopped shining. According to Dr. Hezi Yitzhak and his team of researchers [8], this event in Bible can be traced back to the annular solar eclipse of 1207 BC that was only seen around the regions of Iraq, Northern Africa, Judea and Samaria due to certain position of Sun and the Moon (See below)
The research published in Royal Astronomical Society journal Astronomy & Geophysics [9] reinforces the claim of Dr. Hezi Yitzhak, and coincides with the historical records of the time frame when the battle took place in Canaan that Joshua was leading against the armies of Ramses Merneptah i.e., the son of Ramses II who is believed to be the Pharaoh in the Bible that was vanquished in the Red Sea during the time of Moses. The same story is also mentioned in the Islamic traditions in the hadiths of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) :
“So he [Joshua]marched on and approached a village at or about the time of the Asr prayers. He said to the sun: You are receiving orders and I am receiving orders from Allah, O Allah stop the sun! It was stopped for him until Allah granted him victory.” (Sahih Muslim 19/4327)
“The sun has never stopped for any man besides Yusha [Joshua] when he wanted to conquer Bayt al-Muqaddis.” (Recorded in Musnad Ahmad)
It is interesting to note that the Hadiths mentioned above does not explicitly suggest that the hours of the day stopped or the day got longer or Sun stood still at its position but rather points out that Joshua asked Allah to stop the Sun, leaving this to an interpretation that the Sun stopped shinning, only for the Israelites in the valley of Gibeon. It is quite known that the solar eclipse is only observed in some parts of the world and for different set of observers in other parts of the world, it might not be observed at all.
Similarities of the Miracle of Prophet Muhammad and Prophet Joshua —
Using the scientific logic, the splitting of Moon is not so much different than what happened during the battle when the Sun stood still. In both cases, the heavenly bodies worked in the favour of the Prophets so that the non-believers were shown the signs from the God. In one case, the Sun stopped shinning because of a solar eclipse as a response to the prayer of Joshua and in the later case, the Moon was seen to split into two when Prophet Muhammed (S.A.W) was challenged by the non-believers. Based on scientific research as mentioned above, the Sun never stopped shinning in reality, only that Moon came in front of it and covered it leading to an annular solar eclipse.
In the same light, I believe that there is a possibility that Moon never physically split in two during the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) time but it was seen to have split into two. In some way, its in line with the time during the Battle of Badr when God made two groups (Muslims and Non-Muslims) see what he wanted them to see.
Already there has been for you a sign in the two armies which met [in Battle at Badr] — one fighting in the cause of Allāh and another of disbelievers. They saw them [to be] twice their [own] number by [their] eyesight. But Allāh supports with His victory whom He wills. Indeed in that is a lesson for those of vision. (Surah Al-Imran, 3:13)
The reality was however, completely different for lets say another set of observers (not belligerent), who happen to have passed by the field where the Battle of Badr was being fought. They would have seen Muslims around a total of 313 and pagans as 1000.
This has also been reported by companions of the Prophet (S.A.W) who participated in the Battle of Badr. Ibne-Kaseer reports that Abdullah Bin Masood (R.A) narrated that on the day of the Battle, he asked one of his companions, to which he replied that they seems to be only around 100 (less than one-third of total of 313 on Muslims side). Even though when Muslims captured one of the disbelievers as a prisoner of war and asked him about the total force on the Meccans side, he confirmed it to be 1000.
And the same phenomenon that Canterbury monks witnessed, of comet/asteroid crashing on Moon giving a visual of splitting of Moon could possibly be the same phenomenon that the people in Mecca witnessed during Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) time. Still it does not take away the fact that it was a miracle. As both of these extraordinary events happened at exactly the moment when Prophet Muhammed or Prophet Joshua prayed. Due to this reason, both are constituted as a miracles.
As an example, Jesus was known to have miracle that he could cure people with the touch of his hand. Now the ‘curing’ part is not impossible and not unnatural. People in that time were known to get cured from leprosy using herbal medicines such as oil derived from chaulmoogra tree, but what constituted Jesus’ miracle was that he cured the person affected with leprosy exactly when he wanted (at the touch of his hand). Similarly cancers patient are known to get ‘cured’ from even life-threating scenarios when cancer goes into remission. But curing a cancer patient at the touch of one’s hand (as what Jesus used to do) is what will constitute a miracle. Similarly, comet crashing on Moon is not unnatural as we have established initially that tens of thousands of them have crashed on Moon and for some of them, it could give appearance to an observer on Earth as splitting of Moon, but what constitutes a miracle is that a comet/asteroid crashes on Moon and seen as splitting of Moon exactly when Prophet wanted it.
It is worth-noting that comets/asteroids are seen to have a specific purpose in the Islamic tradition besides being a icy, rocky or metallic body in the space. Quran mentions in Surah As-Saffat 37:6–10.
Indeed, We have adorned the lowest heaven with the stars for decoration. And [for] protection from every rebellious devil. They cannot listen to the highest assembly [of angels] for they are pelted from every side, [fiercely] driven away. And they will suffer an everlasting torment. But whoever manages to stealthily eavesdrop is [instantly] pursued by a piercing flare.
where — according to modern translators — the word piercing flare is known to be used for comet/asteroid. The verse regarding piercing flare, gives the meaning that some comets/asteroids are not only bound to their defined orbit but rather wander wayward and change course in space in whimsical and unpredictable fashion. This is also confirmed by science that the orbit of the asteroids and comets can be suddenly changed by gravitational pulls of different heavenly bodies.
The only arguments against is that there is no recorded ‘sighting’ of splitting of Moon or no scientific evidence for the rift on Moon. We shall also see that neither the evidence of the rift line is needed to accept that the Moon split into two and nor its relevant to be seen by people in China, Europe, Byzantine Empire or Mesoamerica (the cultures that were known to keep time and keenly record major geological and astronomical events). However, it should be noted that as India was relatively geologically close to Mecca, there is one recorded sighting during the reign of Farmas i.e., King of Malabar in India, who witnessed the event and his testimony that Moon was split into two, is recorded in his parchments [11]
Case of Two Alternatives (among others) —
Even though it will be difficult to prove and say for certain what really happened in Mecca in 622 A.D, but we can speculate and theorize according to our limited knowledge. If we take different alternatives that we can think of, for the how the Moon split into two, one at a time.
1- Almighty God split the Moon in reality and then was re-joined (at His Command)
The first alternative is self-explanatory and does not need any logic or reasoning when we consider God as Omnipotent.
2- Almighty God made it look like to the people that the Moon split into two (at His Command)
The second alternative is also self-explanatory and does not need any logic or reasoning when we consider God as Omnipotent. But at the same time, the second alternative can also be a considered a reconciliation for the rationalist minds (Jewish and Christians [10]) who don’t believe that the Moon was ever split into two based on their perceived logic and science. It is worth noting that among these people are also those who believe in the miracles of Jesus or the story of Joshua commanding the Sun and Moon to stand still, but deny that Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) was given even a single miracle by God such as the splitting of Moon .
Arguments v. Counterargument—
Among others, following are some of the most quoted arguments against splitting of Moon.
- Had it been that Moon split into two in 622 A.D., then people around those parts of the world, could have witnessed and recorded it but so far no ubiquitous/extensive record of that exists.
- They cannot see that happen without Earth experiencing some consequences as a result of tipping of balance between the gravitational forces of Earth and Moon (when splitting took place) but so far no ubiquitous/extensive record of that exists.
- Some rationalists also refute the splitting of Moon, based on the statement from NASA [12].
All of the above three arguments against the miracle become null and void if we bring in science to explain the splitting of Moon. In 1178 A.D, the splitting of Moon that the monks in Canterbury witnessed — according to science — was possibly due to the comet/asteroid crashing into the Moon. What the monks witnessed was not recorded by others around the world. Following science and logic, it was not possible in other cultures around the world to record it as the Moon was visible only over England and regions around it. Similarly on the same footings, that day in Mecca during Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) time, the moon was seen to have split into two, possibly because of comet/asteroid crashing into Moon and was only seen around the regions surrounding modern day Saudi Arabia. We will never know for sure, but as a reconciliation to the rationalists, this alternative hypothesis holds ground. The hypothesis also answers some of the questions raised by the warring camps of the other faiths that we will visit later in this article. It should be noted however, Almighty God has power to do whatever He wills, making use of whatever means He sees appropriate in His wisdom. For God, it is not relevant which way He chooses to do something. Being Omnipotent, there is nothing ‘less difficult’ or ‘more difficult’. Everything is easy for Him as mentioned in Surah Haj 22:70
أَلَمْ تَعْلَمْ أَنَّ ٱللَّهَ يَعْلَمُ مَا فِى ٱلسَّمَآءِ وَٱلْأَرْضِ ۗ إِنَّ ذَٰلِكَ فِى كِتَـٰبٍ ۚ إِنَّ ذَٰلِكَ عَلَى ٱللَّهِ يَسِيرٌۭ
Do you not know that Allah knows what is in the heaven and earth? Indeed, that is in a Record. Indeed that, for Allah, is Easy.
When He says something to happen, it happens (Surah Yasin 36:82). All the things that are on Earth or in Heavens follows his Command (Surah Fussilat 41:11)
إِنَّمَآ أَمْرُهُۥٓ إِذَآ أَرَادَ شَيْـًٔا أَن يَقُولَ لَهُۥ كُن فَيَكُونُ
His command is only when He intends a thing that He says to it, “Be,” and it is.
ثُمَّ ٱسْتَوَىٰٓ إِلَى ٱلسَّمَآءِ وَهِىَ دُخَانٌۭ فَقَالَ لَهَا وَلِلْأَرْضِ ٱئْتِيَا طَوْعًا أَوْ كَرْهًۭا قَالَتَآ أَتَيْنَا طَآئِعِينَ
Then He directed Himself to the heaven while it was smoke and said to it and to the earth, “Come [into being], willingly or by compulsion.” They said, “We have come willingly.”
Reconciliation through Science —
Based on the some similarities and some dissimilarities of the two events in Mecca in 622 A.D and Canterburry in 1178 A.D, it is possible to theorize that in Mecca, the Moon was seen to split into two. As Moon was not physically split into two; therefore technically no record of terrestrial consequences or remnant of rupture/rift line should exist on Moon. Similarly, taking the lessons from the geological difference of observers, there should also be no witnesses and testimonies that should exist in China, Europe or Mesoamerica. Just as in the case for Joshua or Canterbury monks; witnessing astronomical events depends a lot on the location of the observer, time of the day, the weather on that day (e.g., cloudy or clear), month of the year, would mean some would be able to witness and some not.
As an example: when it is late into the night in Saudi Arabia, it is an early morning in Beijing. Similarly if we consider the event to happen during summer time, then sun would set in Saudi Arabia around 18:00 while the Sun would set in London around 22:00. This means that when it gets close to completely dark in Saudi Arabia, the Sun has not even set in London for anyone to record anything. There is so many variables that one cannot just simply refute and use the argument that absence of witnesses denies the authenticity of the event. In the eyes of law, this argument contains not only scientific but fundamental legal fallacies. There are two many variables to consider before refuting the claim that moon was split into two during Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) time. However, this reasoning of comet/asteroid crashing on Moon, does not mean that it was just a natural event that happened in serendipity or by pure luck, but corroborates that it was a miracle because:
- The splitting of Moon due to the comet/asteroid impact happened exactly when Muhammed (S.A.W) was asked by pagan Meccans to show them a miracle. A random event is different than a miracle as miracles are performed as a response to some challenge (the context of the hadith mentioned above, narrated by Anas ibn Malik) Similarly the Sun stood still when Joshua prayed for it, it did not just stood still and stopped to shine just by pure luck/chance, it happened as a response to Joshua’s prayers.
- The splitting of Moon due to the comet/asteroid impact cannot be considered as illusion as heavenly bodies physically interacted with other heavenly bodies i.e., comet/asteroid fell onto Moon. Had it been an optical illusion or trick, the heavenly bodies would never have collided with each other at exactly the same time the Prophet Muhammed (S.A.W) prayed for it.
Conclusion and Future Work —
The often-quoted miracle of splitting of Moon into two during Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) time could have possibly happened due to comet/asteroid crashing onto Moon, giving off the appearance of Moon splitting into two parts, just as in the case of testimony of Canterbury monks that was later confirmed by scientific research. Depending on the phase of the moon, for example if it was a new Moon, the splitting can become more easily witnessed than when there is a full Moon. However, the two events are quite different as the former event (for Prophet Muhammad) constitute a miracle, while the latter event (for Canterbury Monks) is considered as natural event. In any case, based on scientific understanding, rationalists must accept that Moon was split into two on that day in Makkah in 622 A.D. as an optical miracle, if not as an actual physical splitting of Moon.
Some of the future work to either debunk or validate the theory is to do the following (list is not exhaustive and in no order of precedence):
1- Based on the technique employed by Calame & Derral (1978) for analysis of the Crater Bruno, it should be investigated whether some comet/asteroid impact happened around 622 A.D.
2- Based on the technique employed by Calame & Derral (1978), to investigate whether the impact was also observable on Earth.
3- Based on historical records and Vaubaillon et. al., (2005), the evidence/testimonies of meteor shower consistent with crash of comet/asteroid is to be investigated. If there is evidence of the meteor shower around 622 A.D, then it is a tell-tale of comet/asteroid crashing on the Moon.
4- Based on Colin & Graeme (2017) technique to analyse the Solar Eclipse of 1207 B.C, similarly using same method to extrapolate back in time around 622 A.D to see when Sun set in Saudi Arabia compared to Europe, China, India or Mesoamerica. This will define which regions would have been able to see the night sky for any abnormal astronomical event such as splitting of Moon.
This will be difficult and lengthy research, but will be worth it not only for the believers of faith but also for science itself: that heavenly bodies appearances can be affected by asteroids/comets impact at the time of capture of the images by the telescopes.
‘اَللّٰهُ أَعْلَم’
‘And Allah knows Best’
End.
Appendix:
Exhibit 1:
Exhibit 2:
References:
[1] Carl Sagan (1980), Cosmos, ISBN: 978–0–345–53943–4 (2013 edition)
[2] Eugene (1983). “Asteroid and Comet Bombardment of the Earth”. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. (1): 461–494. doi:10.1146/annurev.ea.11.050183.002333.
[3] https://www.wired.com/2008/06/june-18-1178-english-monks-observe-lunar-explosion/
[4] Calame, Odile, and J. Derral Mulholland. “Lunar Crater Giordano Bruno: A.D. 1178 Impact Observations Consistent with Laser Ranging Results.” Science 199, no. 4331 (1978): 875–77. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1745270
[5] https://fiqh.islamonline.net/en/signs-of-the-day-of-judgment-past-present-future/
[6] Jami at-Tirmidhi 2182 & Sahih Bukhaari 3636 & 3637
[7] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8H3UzR2G1JY&t=2845s
[8] https://www.timesofisrael.com/eclipse-stopped-the-sun-for-biblical-joshua-israeli-scientists-say/
[9] Colin Humphreys, Graeme Waddington, Solar eclipse of 1207 BC helps to date pharaohs, Astronomy & Geophysics, Volume 58, Issue 5, October 2017, Pages 5.39–5.42, https://doi.org/10.1093/astrogeo/atx178
[10] https://www.catholic.com/magazine/online-edition/that-time-muhammad-didnt-split-the-moon
[11] http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/farmas.html
[12] https://sservi.nasa.gov/?question=evidence-moon-having-been-split-two
[13] Vaubaillon, Jérémie & Colas, Francois & Jorda, L.. (2005). A new method to predict meteor showers. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361:20042626. 439.
